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Improving piglet survival

Pre-weaning piglet mortality continues to be a major economic and welfare concern in all farrowing and lactation systems. Average total piglet mortality (i.e. stillbirths + live-born deaths) ranges from 16-20%. In most breeds this means two piglets in every litter die pre-weaning.

How can we reduce piglet mortality?

  • Identify the causes
  • Identify whether the causes are the same in different systems
  • Identify the pre-disposing risk factors
  • Target those risk factors

What are the causes of piglet mortality?

The majority of piglet deaths occur during birth or within the first 72h of postnatal life. Eight different causes of death have been identified but the main three are:

  • Stillbirth
  • Starvation
  • Crushing

But piglet mortality is multifaceted and the sow, piglets and their environment all interact to contribute to these causal factors.

Are causes the same in all farrowing systems?

No, generally in conventional crated systems there is a greater prevalence for stillbirths and starvation related deaths, whereas in systems where the sow is kept loose crushing is the main cause of death.

What are the predisposing risk factors for piglet mortality?

We can separate the risk factors into prenatal (before birth) and postnatal (i.e. live-born). The diagrams below show the different events that can result in either stillbirth (Fig 1) or live-born death (Fig 2).

How do we target risk factors?

For more information on risk factors and how to target them, view our document on risk factors in piglet mortality and how to target them and our fact sheets on Stillbirths and Live-born mortality.

Are there specific strategies for loose farrowing environments?

Management

Managing the farrowing and lactation system requires targeted interventions by stockpeople but in loose farrowing systems these are still being optimised. To learn about the current recommendations for specific free farrowing management please visit Free Farrowing Husbandry.

Design

Design features that optimise interventions are important in free farrowing systems. To learn more about these features please visit our Specific Pen Features pages.

Should there be a specific free farrowing genotype used in loose systems?

Some sows perform very well in free farrowing systems whilst others show more variable results. In order to increase consistent performance it is likely that selecting sows for appropriate maternal behaviours in these systems will be an important endeavour. 

Further reading

These references are relevant for improving piglet survival and are split into different relevant sections and arranged in descending date order:

Reviews
  • Baxter, E.M. and Edwards, S.A., 2018. Piglet mortality and morbidity: Inevitable or unacceptable?. In Spinka, M. (ed.) Advances in Pig Welfare. Woodhead Publishing, UK, p. 73-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-101012-9.00003-4
  • Edwards, S.A. and Baxter, E.M., 2015. Piglet mortality: causes and prevention. In Farmer, C. (ed.) The gestating and lactating sow. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, the Netherlands, p. 649-653. https://doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-803-2_11
  • Pedersen, L.J., 2015. Neonatal piglet mortality in relation to sow farrowing environment. Proc. International Conference on Pig Welfare: Improving pig welfare – what are the ways forward? Copenhagen. pp. 26-29.
  • Edwards, S.A., 2002. Perinatal mortality in the pig: environmental or physiological solutions? Livestock Production Science, 78: 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-6226(02)00180-X
Piglet characteristics
  • Farmer, C. and Edwards, S., 2020. The neonatal pig: developmental influences on vitality. In: Farmer, C. (ed.) The suckling and weaned piglet. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp 9-39. https://doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-894-0_1
  • Edwards, S.A., Matheson, S.M. and Baxter, E.M., 2019. Genetic influences on intra-uterine growth retardation of piglet and management interventions for low birth weight piglets. In Nutrition of Hyperprolific Sows.  Libro Novus. pp. 141-166.
  • Feldpausch, J.A., Jourquin, J., Bergstrom, J.R., Bargen, J.L., Bokenkroger, C.D., Davis, D.L., Gonzalez, J.M., Nelssen, J.L., Puls, C.L., Trout, W.E. and Ritter, M.J., 2019. Birth weight threshold for identifying piglets at risk for preweaning mortality. Translational Animal Science, 3: 633–640. https://doi.org/10.1093/tas/txz076
  • Matheson, S.M., Walling, G.A., and Edwards, S.A., 2018. Genetic selection against intrauterine growth retardation in piglets: a problem at the piglet level with a solution at the sow level. Genetics Selection Evolution, 50: 46. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12711-018-0417-7
  • Amdi, C., Krogh, U., Flummer, C., Oksbjerg, N., Hansen, C.F. and Theil, P.K., 2013. Intrauterine growth restricted piglets defined by their head shape ingest insufficient amounts of colostrum. Journal of Animal Science, 91: 5605-5613. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2013-6824
  • Hales, J., Moustsen, V.A., Nielsen, M.B.F. and Hansen, C.F., 2013. Individual physical characteristics of neonatal piglets affect pre-weaning survival of piglets born in a non-crated system. Journal of Animal Science, 91: 4991–5003. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2012-5740
  • Pedersen, L.J., Berg, P., Jørgensen, G. and Andersen, I.L., 2011. Neonatal piglet traits of importance for survival in crates and indoor pens. Journal of Animal Science, 89: 1207-1218. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2010-3248
  • Baxter, E.M., Jarvis, S., Sherwood, L., Robson, S.K., Ormandy, E., Farish, M., Smurthwaite, K.M., Roehe, R., Lawrence, A.B. and Edwards, S.A., 2009. Indicators of piglet survival in an outdoor farrowing system. Livestock science, 124: 266-276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2009.02.008
  • Baxter, E.M., Jarvis, S., D’eath, R.B., Ross, D.W., Robson, S.K., Farish, M., Nevison, I.M., Lawrence, A.B. and Edwards, S.A., 2008. Investigating the behavioural and physiological indicators of neonatal survival in pigs. Theriogenology, 69: 773-783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2007.12.007
  • Pedersen, L.J., Jørgensen, E., Heiskanen, T. and Damm, B.I., 2006. Early piglet mortality in loose-housed sows related to sow and piglet behaviour and to the progress of parturition. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 96: 215-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2005.06.016
  • Tuchscherer, M., Puppe, B., Tuchscherer, A. and Tiemann, U., 2000. Early identification of neonates at risk: traits of newborn piglets with respect to survival. Theriogenology, 54: 371-388. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0093-691X(00)00355-1

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Sow characteristics
  • Schild, S.A., Foldager, L., Rangstrup-Christensen, L. and Pedersen, L.J., 2020. Characteristics of piglets born by two highly prolific sow hybrids. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7: 355. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00355
  • De Meyer, D., Amalraj, A., Van Limbergen, T., Fockedey, M., Edwards, S.A., Moustsen, V.A., Chantziaras, I. and Maes, D., 2020. Short Communication: effect of positive handling of sows on litter performance and pre-weaning piglet mortality. Animal, 14: 1733-1739. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731120000427
  • Kecman, J., Neu, J., Göres, N., Rosner, F., Voss, B., Kemper, N. and Swalve, H.H., 2019. Genetic parameters for traits derived from behavioural tests for lactating sows. In: Book of abstracts of the 70th annual meeting of the European Federation of Animal Science (EAAP): Ghent, Belgium, 26.-30.08.2019. S. 422. https://elib.tiho-hannover.de/receive/tiho_mods_00002305
  • Pfeiffer, C., Fuerst-Waltl, B., Schodl, K. and Knapp. P., 2019. Genetic analysis of feet and leg conformation and proportion of crushed piglets in Austrian large white and landrace sows. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, 67: 1213–1219. https://doi.org/10.11118/actaun201967051213
  • King R L., Baxter, E.M., Matheson, S.M. and Edwards, S.A., 2018. Sow free farrowing behaviour: Experiential, seasonal and individual variation. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 208: 14-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2018.08.006
  • Matheson, S.M., Walling, G.A. and Edwards, S.A., 2018. Genetic selection against intrauterine growth retardation in piglets: a problem at the piglet level with a solution at the sow level. Genetics Selection Evolution, 50: 46. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12711-018-0417-7
  • Rangstrup-Christensen, L., Krogh, M.A., Pedersen, L.J. and Sørensen, J.T., 2018. Sow level risk factors for early piglet mortality and crushing in organic outdoor production. Animal, 12: 810-818. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731117002178
  • Turner, S.P., Camerlink, I., Baxter, E.M., D’Eath, R.B., Desire, S. and Roehe, R., 2018. Breeding for pig welfare: Opportunities and challenges. In Advances in Pig Welfare (pp. 399-414). Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-101012-9.00012-5
  • Ocepek, M. and Andersen, I.L., 2017. What makes a good mother? Maternal behavioural traits important for piglet survival. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 193: 29-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2017.03.010
  • Rangstrup-Christensen, L., Krogh, M.A., Pedersen, L.J. and Sørensen, J.T., 2017. Sow-level risk factors for stillbirth of piglets in organic sow herds. Animal, 11: 1078-1083. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731116002408
  • Balzani, A., Cordell, H.J. and Edwards, S.A., 2016. Relationship of sow udder morphology with piglet suckling behaviour and teat access. Theriogenology, 86: 1913-1920. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2016.06.007
  • Balzani, A., Cordell, H.J., Sutcliffe, E. and Edwards, S.A., 2016. Heritability of udder morphology and colostrum quality traits in swine. Journal of Animal Science, 94: 3636-3644. 
  • Ocepek, M., Andersen-Ranberg, I., Edwards, S.A., Fredriksen, B., Framstad, T. and Andersen, I.L., 2016. Can a super sow be a robust sow? Consequences of litter investment in purebred and crossbred sows of different parities. Journal of Animal Science, 94: 3550-3560. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2016-0386
  • Stratz, P., Just, A., Faber, H. and Bennewitz, J., 2016. Genetic analyses of mothering ability in sows using field-recorded observations. Livestock Science, 191: 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2016.06.014
  • Baxter, E.M., Rutherford, K.M.D., d’Eath, R.B., Arnott, G., Turner, S.P., Sandøe, P., Moustsen, V.A., Thorup, F., Edwards, S.A. and Lawrence, A.B., 2013. The welfare implications of large litter size in the domestic pig II: management factors. Animal Welfare, 22: 219-238. https://doi.org/10.7120/09627286.22.2.219
  • Nielsen, B., Su, G., Lund, M.S. and Madsen, P., 2013. Selection for increased number of piglets at d 5 after farrowing has increased litter size and reduced piglet mortality. Journal of Animal Science, 91: 2575-2582. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2012-5990
  • Rutherford, K.M.D., Baxter, E.M., D’eath, R.B., Turner, S.P., Arnott, G., Roehe, R., Ask, B., Sandøe, P., Moustsen, V.A., Thorup, F. and Edwards, S.A., 2013. The welfare implications of large litter size in the domestic pig I: biological factors. Animal Welfare, 22: 199-218. https://doi.org/10.7120/09627286.22.2.199
  • Baxter, E.M., Jarvis, S., Sherwood, L., Farish, M., Roehe, R., Lawrence, A.B. and Edwards, S.A., 2011. Genetic and environmental effects on piglet survival and maternal behaviour of the farrowing sow. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 130: 28-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2010.11.020
  • Roehe, R., Shrestha, N.P., Mekkawy, W., Baxter, E.M., Knap, P.W., Smurthwaite, K.M., Jarvis, S., Lawrence, A.B. and Edwards, S.A., 2010. Genetic parameters of piglet survival and birth weight from a two-generation crossbreeding experiment under outdoor conditions designed to disentangle direct and maternal effects. Journal of Animal Science, 88: 1276-1285. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2009-2287
  • Gäde, S., Bennewitz, J., Kirchner, K., Looft, H., Knap, P. W., Thaller, G. and Kalm, E., 2008. Genetic parameters for maternal behaviour traits in sows. Livestock Science, 114: 31-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2007.04.006
  • Hellbrügge, B., Tölle, K. H., Bennewitz, J., Henze, C., Presuhn, U. and Krieter, J., 2008. Genetic aspects regarding piglet losses and the maternal behaviour of sows, Part 2. Genetic relationship between maternal behaviour in sows and piglet mortality. Animal, 2: 1281-1288. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731108002516
  • Quesnel, H., Brossard, L., Valancogne, A., and Quiniou, N., 2008. Influence of some sow characteristics on within‐litter variation of piglet birth weight. Animal, 2: 1842–1849. https://doi.org/10.1017/S175173110800308X
  • Pedersen, L.J., Jørgensen, E., Heiskanen, T. and Damm, B.I., 2006. Early piglet mortality in loose-housed sows related to sow and piglet behaviour and to the progress of parturition. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 96: 215-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2005.06.016
  • Andersen, I.L., Berg, S. and Bøe, K.E., 2005. Crushing of piglets by the mother sow (Sus scrofa)—purely accidental or a poor mother? Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 93: 229–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2004.11.015
  • Vangen, O., Holm, B., Valros , A., Lund, M.S. and Rydhmer, L., 2005. Genetic variation in sows’ maternal behaviour, recorded under field conditions. Livestock Production Science, 93: 63-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livprodsci.2004.11.007
  • Grandinson, K., Rydhmer, L., Strandberg, E. and Thodberg, K., 2003. Genetic analysis of on-farm tests of maternal behaviour in sows. Livestock Production Science, 83: 141 – 151. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-6226(03)00095-2
  • Grandinson, K., Lund, M.S., Rydhmer, L. and Strandberg, E., 2002. Genetic parameters for the piglet mortality traits crushing, stillbirth and total mortality, and their relation to birth weight. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A – Animal Science, 52: 167-173. https://doi.org/10.1080/090647002762381041

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Sow nutrition
  • Gourley, K.M.,  Swanson, A.J., DeRouchey, J.M., Tokach, M.D., Dritz, S.S., Goodband, R.D. and Woodworth, J.C., 2020. Effects of increased lysine and energy feeding duration prior to parturition on sow and litter performance, piglet survival, and colostrum quality. Journal of Animal Science, 98:  skaa105. https://doi.org/10.1093/jas/skaa105
  • Gourley, K.M.,  Swanson, A.J., Royall, R.Q.,  DeRouchey, J.M., Tokach, M.D., Dritz, S.S., Goodband, R.D. Hastad, C.W. and Woodworth, J.C., 2020. Effects of timing and size of meals prior to farrowing on sow and litter performance, Translational Animal Science, 4: 724–736. https://doi.org/10.1093/tas/txaa066
  • Edwards, L.E., Plush, K.J., Ralph, C.R., Morrison, R.S., Acharya, R.Y. and Doyle, R.E., 2019. Enrichment with lucerne hay improves sow maternal behaviour and improves piglet survival. Animals, 9: 558. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9080558
  • Gourley, K.M.,  Swanson, A.J., Woodworth, J.C.,  DeRouchey, J.M., Tokach, M.D., Dritz, S.S., Goodband, R.D. and Frederick, B., 2019. 183 Effects of increasing duration of feeding high dietary lysine and energy prior to farrowing on sow and litter performance under commercial conditions. Journal of Animal Science, 97 Supplement 2: 103–104. https://doi.org/10.1093/jas/skz122.183
  • Pedersen, T.F., Van Vliet, S., Bruun, T.S. and Theil, P.K., 2019. Feeding sows during the transition period—is a gestation diet, a simple transition diet, or a lactation diet the best choice? Translational Animal Science, 4: 34-48. https://doi.org/10.1093/tas/txz155
  • Peng, X., Yan, C., Hu, L., Liu, Y., Xu, Q., Wang, R., Qin, L., Wu, C., Fang, Z., Lin, Y. and Xu, S., 2019. Effects of fat supplementation during gestation on reproductive performance, milk composition of sows and intestinal development of their offspring. Animals, 9: 125. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9040125
  • Feyera, T., Pedersen, T.F., Krogh, U., Foldager, L. and Theil, P.K., 2018. Impact of sow energy status during farrowing on farrowing kinetics, frequency of stillborn piglets, and farrowing assistance. Journal of Animal Science, 96: 2320-2331. https://doi.org/10.1093/jas/sky141
  • Bontempo, V. and Jiang, X.R., 2015. Feeding various fat levels in sows: effects on immune status and performance of sows and piglets, in Farmer, C. (ed.) The gestating and lactating sow. Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers, pp. 357–375. https://doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-803-2_16
  • Theil, P.K., Lauridsen, C. and Quesnel, H., 2014. Neonatal piglet survival: impact of sow nutrition around parturition on fetal glycogen deposition and production and composition of colostrum and transient milk. Animal, 8: 1021-1030. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731114000950
  • Amdi, C., Hansen, C.F., Krogh, U., Oksbjerg, N., and Theil, P.K., 2013. Less brain sparing occurs in severe intrauterine growth-restricted piglets born to sows fed palm fatty acid distillate. In: Manipulating Pig Production XIV. APSA Biennial Conference, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, 24th to 27th November, p125.
  • Loisel, F., Farmer, C., Ramaekers, P. and Quesnel, H., 2013. Effects of high fiber intake during late pregnancy on sow physiology, colostrum production, and piglet performance. Journal of Animal Science, 91: 5269-5279. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2013-6526
  • Campos, P.H.R.F., Silva, B.A.N., Donzele, J.L., Oliveira, R.F.M. and Knol, E.F., 2012. Effects of sow nutrition during gestation on within-litter birth weight variation: a review. Animal, 6: 797-806. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1751731111002242
  • Wu, G., Bazer, F.W., Burghardt, R.C., Johnson, G.A., Kim, S.W., Li, X.L., Satterfield, M.C. and Spencer, T.E., 2010. Impacts of amino acid nutrition on pregnancy outcome in pigs: mechanisms and implications for swine production. Journal of animal science, 88: E195-E204. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2009-2446
  • Van den Brand, H., Van Enckevort, L.C.M., Van der Hoeven, E.M. and Kemp, B., 2009. Effects of dextrose plus lactose in the sows diet on subsequent reproductive performance and within litter birth weight variation. Reproduction in Domestic Animals, 44: 884-888. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0531.2008.01106.x
  • Rooke, J.A., Sinclair, A.G., Edwards, S.A., Cordoba, R., Pkiyach, S., Penny, P.C., Penny, P., Finch, A.M., and Horgan, G.W., 2001. The effect of feeding salmon oil to sows throughout pregnancy on pre-weaning mortality of piglets. Animal Science, 73: 489-500. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135772980005846X

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Colostrum availability and intake
  • Hasan, S., Orro, T., Valros, A., Junnikkala, S., Peltoniemi, O. and Oliviero, C., 2019. Factors affecting sow colostrum yield and composition, and their impact on piglet growth and health. Livestock Science, 227: 60-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2019.07.004
  • Swanson, A.J., Gourley, K.M., Jones, C.K., DeRouchey, J.M., Tokach, M.D., Dritz, S.S., Goodband, R.D. and Frederick, B., 2019. 361 Increasing duration of feeding high dietary lysine and energy before farrowing on colostrum quality and yield in mixed parity sows. Journal of Animal Science, 97 Supplement 2: 150–151. https://doi.org/10.1093/jas/skz122.266
  • Declerck, I., Sarrazin, S., Dewulf, J. and Maes, D., 2017. Sow and piglet factors determining variation of colostrum intake between and within litters. Animal, 11: 1336-1343. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731117000131
  • Declerck, I., Dewulf, J., Piepers, S., Decaluwé, R. and Maes, D., 2015. Sow and litter factors influencing colostrum yield and nutritional composition. Journal of Animal Science, 93: 1309-1317. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2014-8282
  • Krogh, U., Bruun, t.S., Amdi, C., Flummer, C., Poulsen, J. and Theil, P. K., 2015. Colostrum production in sows fed different sources of fiber and fat during late gestation. Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 95: 211–223. https://doi.org/10.4141/cjas-2014-060
  • Muns, R., Manteca, X. and Gasa, J., 2015. Effect of different management techniques to enhance colostrum intake on piglets’ growth and mortality. Animal Welfare, 24: 185-192. https://doi.org/10.7120/09627286.24.2.185
  • Vadmand, C.N., Krogh, U., Hansen, C.F. Theil, P.K., 2015. Impact of sow and litter characteristics on colostrum yield, time for onset of lactation, and milk yield of sows. Journal of Animal Science, 93: 2488–2500. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2014-8659
  • Decaluwé, R., Maes, D., Wuyts, B., Cools, A., Piepers, S. and Janssens, G.P.J., 2014. Piglets׳ colostrum intake associates with daily weight gain and survival until weaning. Livestock Science, 162: 185-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2014.01.024
  • Decaluwé, R., Maes, D., Declerck, I., Cools, A., Wuyts, B., De Smet, S. and Janssens, G.P.J., 2013. Changes in back fat thickness during late gestation predict colostrum yield in sows. Animal, 7: 1999-2007. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731113001791
  • Loisel, F., Farmer, C., Ramaekers, P. and Quesnel, H., 2013. Effects of high fiber intake during late pregnancy on sow physiology, colostrum production, and piglet performance. Journal of Animal Science, 91: 5269-5279. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2013-6526
  • Quesnel, H., Farmer, C. and Devillers, N., 2012. Colostrum intake: Influence on piglet performance and factors of variation. Livestock Science, 146: 105-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2012.03.010
  • Devillers, N., Le Dividich, J. and Prunier, A., 2011. Influence of colostrum intake on piglet survival and immunity. Animal, 5: 1605-1612. https://doi.org/10.1017/S175173111100067X
  • Le Dividich, J., Rooke, J.A. and Herpin, P., 2005. Nutritional and immunological importance of colostrum for the new-born pig. The Journal of Agricultural Science, 143: 469-485. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859605005642

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Management of farrowing
  • Langendijk, P. and Plush, K., 2019. Parturition and its relationship with stillbirths and asphyxiated piglets. Animals, 9: 885. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9110885
  • Mainau, E., Temple, D. and Manteca, X., 2016. Experimental study on the effect of oral meloxicam administration in sows on pre-weaning mortality and growth and immunoglobulin G transfer to piglets. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 126: 48-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2016.01.032
  • Homedes, J., Salichs, M., Sabaté, D., Sust, M., Fabre, R., 2014. Effect of ketoprofen on pre-weaning piglet mortality on commercial farms. The Veterinary Journal, 201: 435–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.05.038
  • Kirkden, R.D., Broom, D.M. and Andersen, I.L., 2013. Piglet mortality: The impact of induction of farrowing using prostaglandins and oxytocin. Animal Reproduction Science, 38: 14-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2013.02.009
  • Mainau, E., Ruiz-de-la-Torre, J.L., Dalmau, A., Salleras, J.M., Manteca, X., 2012. Effects of meloxicam (Metacam®) on post-farrowing sow behaviour and piglet performance. Animal, 6: 494–501. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731111001790
  • Oliviero, C., Heinonen, M., Valros, A. and Peltoniemi, O., 2010. Environmental and sow-related factors affecting the duration of farrowing. Animal Reproduction Science, 119: 85-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2009.12.009
  • Pedersen, L.J. and Jensen, T., 2008. The effect of late introduction to the farrowing environment (crates and pens) on the progress of parturition and maternal behaviour. Journal of Animal Science, 86: 2730-2737. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2007-0749
  • Mota-Rojas, D., Martínez-Burnes, J., Trujillo, M.E., López, A., Rosales, A.M., Ramírez, R., Orozco, H., Merino, A. and Alonso-Spilsbury, M., 2005. Uterine and fetal asphyxia monitoring in parturient sows treated with oxytocin. Animal Reproduction Science, 86: 131-141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2004.06.004
  • Mota-Rojas, D., Rosales, A.M., Trujillo, M.E., Orozco, H., Ramirez, R. and Alonso-Spilsbury, M., 2005. The effects of vetrabutin chlorhydrate and oxytocin on stillbirth rate and asphyxia in swine. Theriogenology, 64: 1889-1897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2004.12.018
  • Alonso-Spilsbury, M., Mota-Rojas, D., Martı́nez-Burnes, J., Arch, E., Mayagoitia, A.L., Ramı́rez-Necoechea, R., Olmos, A. and Trujillo, M.E., 2004. Use of oxytocin in penned sows and its effect on fetal intra-partum asphyxia. Animal Reproduction Science, 84: 157-167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2003.11.002
  • Mota-Rojas, D., Martínez-Burnes, J., Trujillo-Ortega, M.E., Alonso-Spilsbury, M.L., Ramírez-Necoechea, R. and López, A., 2002. Effect of oxytocin treatment in sows on umbilical cord morphology, meconium staining, and neonatal mortality of piglets. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 63:1571-1574. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.2002.63.1571

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Neonatal management procedures
  • Kobek-Kjeldager, C., Moustsen, V.A., Theil, P.K. and Pedersen, L.J., 2020. Effect of litter size, milk replacer and housing on production results of hyper-prolific sows. Animal, 14: 824-833. https://doi.org/10.1017/S175173111900260X
  • Edwards, S.A., Matheson, S.M. and Baxter, E.M., 2019. Genetic influences on intra-uterine growth retardation of piglet and management interventions for low birth weight piglets. In Nutrition of Hyperprolific Sows. Libro Novus. pp. 141-166.
  • Engelsmann, M.N., Hansen, C.F., Nielsen, M.N., Kristensen, A.R. and Amdi, C., 2019. Glucose injections at birth, warmth and placing at a nurse sow improve the growth of IUGR piglets. Animals, 9: 519. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9080519
  • Schmitt, O., Baxter, E.M., Lawlor, P.G., Boyle, L.A. and O’Driscoll, K., 2019. A single dose of fat-based energy supplement to light birth weight pigs shortly after birth does not increase their survival and growth. Animals, 9: 227. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9050227
  • Amdi, C., Jensen, L.L., Oksbjerg, N. and Hansen, C.F., 2017. Supplementing newborn intrauterine growth restricted piglets with a bolus of porcine colostrum raises rectal temperatures one degree Celsius. Journal of Animal Science, 95: 2968-2976. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2017.1482
  • Moreira, L.P., Menegat, M.B., Barros, G.P., Bernardi, M.L., Wentz, I. and Bortolozzo, F.P., 2017. Effects of colostrum, and protein and energy supplementation on survival and performance of low-birth-weight piglets. Livestock Science, 202 : 188-193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2017.06.006
  • Muns, R., Nuntapaitoon, M. and Tummaruk, P., 2017. Effect of oral supplementation with different energy boosters in newborn piglets on pre-weaning mortality, growth and serological levels of IGF-I and IgG. Journal of Animal Science, 95: 353-360. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2016.0958
  • Rosvold, E.M., Kielland, C., Ocepek, M., Framstad, T., Fredriksen, B., Andersen-Ranberg, I., Næss, G. and Andersen, I.L., 2017. Management routines influencing piglet survival in loose-housed sow herds. Livestock Science, 196: 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2016.12.001
  • Andersen, H.L. and Pedersen, L.J., 2016. Effect of radiant heat at the birth site in farrowing crates on hypothermia and behaviour in neonatal piglets. Animal, 10: 128-134. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731115001913
  • Declerck, I., Dewulf, J., Decaluwé, R. and Maes, D., 2016. Effects of energy supplementation to neonatal (very) low birth weight piglets on mortality, weaning weight, daily weight gain and colostrum intake. Livestock Science, 183: 48-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2015.11.015
  • Pedersen, L.J., Larsen, M.L.V., and Malmkvist, J., 2016. The ability of different thermal aids to reduce hypothermia in neonatal piglets. Journal of Animal Science, 94: 2151-2159. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2015-0219
  • Douglas, S.L., Edwards, S.A. and Kyriazakis, I., 2014. Management strategies to improve the performance of low birth weight pigs to weaning and their long term consequences. Journal of Animal Science, 92: 2280-2288. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2013-7388
  • Muns, R., Silva, C., Manteca, X. and Gasa, J., 2014. Effect of cross-fostering and oral supplementation with colostrums on performance of newborn piglets. Journal of Animal Science, 92: 1193-1199. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2013-6858
  • Miller, Y., Collins, A., Smits, R., Thomson, P. and Holyoake, P., 2012. Providing supplemental milk to piglets pre-weaning improves the growth but not survival of gilt progeny compared with sow progeny. Journal of Animal Science, 90: 5078-5085. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2011-4272
  • Vasdal, G., Østensen, I., Melišová, M., Bozděchová, B., Illmann, G. and Andersen, I.L., 2011. Management routines at the time of farrowing—effects on teat success and postnatal piglet mortality from loose housed sows. Livestock Science, 136: 225-231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2010.09.012
  • Andersen, I.L., Haukvik, I.A. and Bøe, K.E., 2009. Drying and warming immediately after birth may reduce piglet mortality in loose-housed sows. Animal, 3: 592-597. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731108003650
  • Casellas, J., Casas, X., Piedrafita, J. and Manteca, X., 2005. Effect of medium-and long-chain triglyceride supplementation on small newborn-pig survival. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 67: 213-221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2004.10.007
  • Wolter, B., Ellis, M., Corrigan, B. and DeDecker, J., 2002. The effect of birth weight and feeding of supplemental milk replacer to piglets during lactation on preweaning and postweaning growth performance and carcass characteristics. Journal of Animal Science, 80: 301-308. https://doi.org/10.2527/2002.802301x
  • Donovan, T.S. and Dritz, S.S., 2000 Effect of split nursing on variation in pig growth from birth to weaning. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 217: 79-81. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2000.217.79
  • Dunshea, F.R., Kerton, D.J., Eason, P.J. and King, R.H., 1999. Supplemental skim milk before and after weaning improves growth performance of pigs. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 50: 1165-1170. https://doi.org/10.1071/AR98180
  • Dunshea, F.R., Boyce, J.M. and King, R.H., 1998. Effect of supplemental nutrients on the growth performance of sucking pigs. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 49: 883-888. https://doi.org/10.1071/A97147
  • Christison, G.I., Wenger, I.I. and Follensbee, M.E., 1997. Teat seeking success of newborn piglets after drying or warming. Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 77: 317-319. https://doi.org/10.4141/A96-119
  • Azain, M.J., Tomkins, T., Sowinski, J.S., Arentson, R.A. and Jewell, D.E., 1996. Effect of supplemental pig milk replacer on litter performance: Seasonal variation in response. Journal of Animal Science, 74: 2195-2202. https://doi.org/10.2527/1996.7492195x
  • White, K.R., Anderson, D.M. and Bate, L.A., 1996. Increasing piglet survival through an improved farrowing management protocol. Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 76: 491-495. https://doi.org/10.4141/cjas96-075
  • Lepine, A.J., Boyd, R.D., Welch, J.A., and Roneker, K.R., 1989. Effect of colostrum or medium-chain triglyceride supplementation on the pattern of plasma glucose, non-esterified fatty acids and survival of neonatal pigs. Journal of Animal Science, 67: 983–990. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas1989.674983x
  • Kyriazakis, I. and Edwards, S.A., 1986. The effects of split suckling on behaviour and performance of piglets. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 16: 92.

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Fostering and nurse sows
  • King, R.L., Matheson, S.M., Baxter, E.M. and Edwards, S.A., 2020. Sow behaviour and piglet weight gain after late cross-fostering in farrowing crates and pens. Animal, 14: 1923-1933. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731120000580
  • Schmitt, O., Baxter, E.M., Boyle, L.A. and O’Driscoll, K., 2019. Nurse sow strategies in the domestic pig: I. Consequences for selected measures of sow welfare. Animal, 13: 580-589. https://doi.org/10.1017/S175173111800160X
  • Schmitt, O., Baxter, E.M., Boyle, L.A. and O’Driscoll, K., 2019. Nurse sow strategies in the domestic pig: II. Consequences for piglet growth, suckling behaviour and sow nursing behaviour. Animal, 13: 590-599. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731118001702
  • Alexopoulos, J.G., Lines, D.S., Hallett, S. and Plush, K.J., 2018. A review of success factors for piglet fostering in lactation. Animals, 8: 38. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani8030038
  • Amdi, C., Moustsen, V.A., Oxholm, L.C., Baxter, E.M., Sørensen, G., Eriksson, K.B., Diness, L.H., Nielsen, M.F. and Hansen, C.F., 2017. Comparable cortisol, heart rate and milk let-down in nurse sows and non-nurse sows. Livestock Science, 198: 174-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2017.02.024
  • Sørensen, J.T., Rousing, T., Kudahl, A.B., Hansted, H.J. and Pedersen, L.J., 2016. Do nurse sows and foster litters have impaired animal welfare? Results from a cross-sectional study in sow herds. Animal, 10: 681-686. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731115002104
  • Muns, R., Silva, C., Manteca, X. and Gasa, J., 2014. Effect of cross-fostering and oral supplementation with colostrums on performance of newborn piglets. Journal of Animal Science, 92: 1193-1199. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2013-6858
  • Robert, S. and Martineau, G.P., 2001 Effects of repeated crossfosterings on preweaning behavior and growth performance of piglets and on maternal behavior of sows. Journal of Animal Science, 79: 88-93. https://doi.org/10.2527/2001.79188x
  • Straw, B.E., Dewey, C.E. and Bürgi, E.J., 1998. Patterns of crossfostering and piglet mortality on commercial US and Canadian swine farms. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 33: 83-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-5877(97)00051-2
  • Price, E.O., Hutson, G.D., Price, M.I. and Borgwardt, R., 1994. Fostering in swine as affected by age of offspring. Journal of Animal Science, 72: 1697-1701. https://doi.org/10.2527/1994.7271697x
  • Neal, S.M., and Irvin, K.H., 1991. The effects of cross-fostering pigs on survival and growth. Journal of Animal Science, 69: 41–6. https://doi.org/10.2527/1991.69141x
  • Horrell, I. and Bennett, J., 1981. Disruption of teat preferences and retardation of growth following cross-fostering of 1-week-old pigs. Animal Production, 33: 99-106. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003356100025253

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